Apoptosis
Definition
Apoptosis is a genetically regulated form of programmed cell death characterized by cell shrinkage, chromatin condensation, membrane blebbing, and fragmentation into apoptotic bodies that are phagocytosed without triggering inflammation. Apoptosis is mediated through two main pathways: the intrinsic (mitochondrial) pathway, triggered by intracellular stress signals, and the extrinsic (death receptor) pathway, activated by extracellular ligands such as TNF and FasL. Dysregulated apoptosis is implicated in numerous pathologies, with excessive apoptosis contributing to neurodegenerative diseases and insufficient apoptosis enabling cancer progression. Several research peptides modulate apoptotic pathways, with some exhibiting cytoprotective effects.